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I
INTRODUCTION II
LAND AND RESOURCES A Climate The climate of Ghana is tropical, but temperatures vary with season and elevation. Except in the north two rainy seasons occur, from April to July and from September to November. In the north the rainy season begins in April and lasts until September. Annual rainfall ranges from about 1,100 mm (about 43 in) in the north to about 2,100 mm (about 83 in) in the southeast. The harmattan, a dry desert wind, blows from the northeast from December to March, lowering the humidity and creating hot days and cool nights in the north. In the south the effects of the harmattan are felt in January. In most areas the highest temperatures occur in March, the lowest in August. The average annual temperature is about 26° C (about 79° F). B Plants and Animals Much of the natural vegetation of Ghana has been destroyed by land clearing for agriculture, but such trees as the giant silk cotton, African mahogany, and cedar are still prevalent in the tropical forest zone of the south. The northern two-thirds of the country is covered by savanna—a grassland with scattered trees. Animal life has also been depleted, especially in the south, but it remains relatively diverse and includes leopard, hyena, buffalo, elephant, wildhog, antelope, and monkey. Many species of reptiles are found, including the cobra, python, puff adder, and horned adder. C Natural Resources The chief mineral resources of Ghana include gold, diamonds, manganese ore, and bauxite. Forest resources are significant, and the offshore waters are rich in fish. Minor resources include petroleum and natural gas. III
POPULATION A
Population Characteristics
B Political Divisions Ghana is divided into ten administrative regions: Northern, Eastern, Western, Central, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, and Greater Accra. C
Principal Cities D
Language and Religion
E Education Primary and secondary education is free and compulsory in Ghana between the ages of 6 and 14. In 1996, 76 percent of primary school-aged children were enrolled in school. Secondary schools enrolled just 31 percent of the appropriately aged children. Vocational and teacher-training institutions had 38,000 students. Higher education is provided by the University of Ghana (1948), in Legon (near Accra); the University of Science and Technology (1951), in Kumasi; the University of Cape Coast (1962); and the University for Development Studies (1992), in Tamale. Total university enrollment was about 9,600 in the early 1990s. IV
ECONOMY A Agriculture The most important export crop of Ghana is cacao, which is produced chiefly in the Ashanti region by small-scale farmers. In 1998 Ghana produced 380,000 metric tons, making it one of the world’s leading producers. Other major export commodities are coffee, palm kernels, shea nuts, coconut oil, copra, bananas, peanuts, kola nuts, palm oil, and tobacco. Plantings of rubber have been introduced in the southwest. Production of cacao and other cash crops declined in the 1980s because of a combination of factors, including fluctuating world prices, shortages of fertilizers, lack of financial incentives to farmers, and drought. The government has since initiated programs to promote the improvement of these crops. The most important agricultural products in the south are cassava, palm kernels, palm oil, corn, plantain, peanuts, and yams. Other crops include oil nuts, cotton, tobacco, and rice. The shea tree, which bears seeds yielding an edible solid fat called shea butter, is widely distributed in the north, where yams, durra, millet, and corn also are grown. Peanuts and cowpeas are grown in the northeast. Coconuts, coffee, bananas, and citrus fruits are grown along the coast. Cattle, totaling 1.1 million in 1998, are raised principally in the north. Other livestock include 2.2 million goats, 2.1 million sheep, and 13.3 million poultry. B
Forestry and Fishing The fishing industry has grown rapidly since the 1960s. In 1996 the catch was 344,460 metric tons, about one-sixth of which came from inland waters (mainly Lake Volta). Fish markets with cold-storage facilities exist at Sekondi and at Tema. C Mining In 1997 gold production was 52,000 kg (23,587 lb). Production of industrial quality diamonds was 560,000 carats, while 140,000 carats of gem-quality diamonds were extracted. Some 519,000 metric tons of bauxite was mined. D Manufacturing Ghana has, compared to other African countries, a relatively well-developed industrial sector. Manufacturing establishments are generally small, however. Printing and publishing plants are numerous, and the country has a number of sawmills and furniture-producing establishments. Large-scale operations are found mainly in those industries producing beer, cigarettes, soft drinks, edible oils, nails, oxygen and acetylene, and sheet aluminum. The industrial base at Tema, a port city east of Accra, includes an oil refinery. A large aluminum smelter, which uses energy generated by the Volta River Project, produced about 174,000 metric tons of metal per year in the early 1990s. Other manufactures include textiles, footwear, iron and steel, sugar, flour, and glass. E Energy Total annual production of electricity in Ghana in 1997 was 5.9 billion kilowatt-hours; almost all the power was generated in hydroelectric facilities. The first stage of the Volta River Project, the Akosombo Dam, was completed in 1965. A second hydroelectric dam was later constructed downstream, at Kpong. Until the mid-1990s, Ghana was a regular exporter of electricity, but low water levels in the Volta River have periodically caused power shortages in the country. F Currency and Banking The Bank of Ghana (established in 1957) is the country’s central bank and issues the national currency. The currency unit is the cedi, divided into 100 pesewas (2,050 new cedis equal U.S.$1; 1997 average). The National Investment Bank makes development loans to private business and public corporations. G Foreign Trade and Labor Generally, the annual balance of trade has shown a deficit since independence. In 1996 imports to Ghana were valued at 3.2 billion and exports at only $1.7 billion. Ghana’s principal trading partners for exports are the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States, Italy, the Netherlands, Japan, France, and Nigeria; chief trading partners for imports are the United Kingdom, Nigeria, United States, Germany, and Japan. Some 59 percent of Ghana’s labor force is engaged in agriculture. Services employ another 28 percent, while industry, including mining and construction, provide jobs for the remaining 13 percent of the working population. The minister of labor certifies unions for collective bargaining. Uncertified trade unions may not strike. Public service, municipal, and local government employees are forbidden to strike and are not entitled to arbitration. H Transportation In 1990 Ghana was served by 953 km (592 mi) of railroads. The main line forms a rough triangle, connecting Sekondi, Accra, and Kumasi. The country had 37,800 km (23,488 mi) of roads in 1996, of which about one-fifth were paved. There were 5 passenger vehicles for every 1,000 inhabitants in 1996. The country’s two major ports, Tema and Sekondi, are both artificial. Five major airports, located at Kotoka (near Accra), Sekondi, Kumasi, Sunyani, and Tamale, serve the country, with additional airstrips for internal flights. International airlines have regular flights to Accra. Ghana Airways provides domestic and international service. I Communications Radio, television, telegraph, and telephone services are owned and operated by the government of Ghana. Radio programs are broadcast in English and African languages. Programs in English and French are beamed to other parts of Africa as part of an international radio service. A television service was established in 1965. An estimated 238 radio receivers and 93 television sets were in use for every 1,000 inhabitants in 1996. In 1997 there were 5.7 telephone lines for every 1,000 persons. V
GOVERNMENT VI
HISTORY The first Europeans to visit the region, subsequently called the Gold Coast, were Portuguese explorers. In 1482 they established a trading settlement on the site of present-day Elmina. The region became a major supplier of gold to Europe. In addition, the developing slave trade during the 16th century whetted the interest of several European nations. By 1642 the Dutch had forced the Portuguese out. The ocean-directed European trade aided the ascendancy of the Ashanti, who had gradually moved and settled at the junction of trade routes around Kumasi that enabled them to dominate commerce both north and south. By 1670 their supremacy in the Kumasi area was unchallenged, and further expansion left the Ashanti Empire unquestionably predominant among the native states by the middle of the 18th century. A British Dominance Among the European invaders who soon challenged the Dutch were the British, who established forts at Kormantine and Cape Coast. The ensuing rivalry between the two powers culminated in war, from which the Dutch emerged victorious. Government-sponsored British companies, however, continued to pursue their interest, developing by 1750 a flourishing slave trade. Forts also were established by the Danes at Christiansborg and elsewhere, but by the end of the 18th century the British dominated the region. In 1821, 14 years after the abolition of the slave trade, the British settlements were taken over by the Crown. The British purchased the Danish forts in 1850, and in 1871 the Dutch settlements also were transferred to them. The coastal area, by then entirely under British control, was designated a crown colony in 1874. In the early 19th century Ashanti tribes had invaded the coastal territory inhabited by the Fanti, thereby posing a threat to British forts. This led to a series of Ashanti-British wars that continued sporadically until the end of the century. The boundaries of the colony were established in 1901; at the same time the Ashanti and the northern territories were annexed to the colony. Part of the German Togoland was added in 1922. Three years later the first elections for a legislative council were held. Rapid political development, however, began only after World War II (1939-1945), when the British, faced with sustained agitation for national independence, allowed increasing measures of self-government, with the object of gradually establishing an independent country. Accordingly, the British Parliament in January 1957 passed the Ghana Independence Act, and on March 6 of that year the National Assembly of Ghana issued an independence proclamation. Two days later it joined the United Nations. B
The Nkrumah Years
During the following years Nkrumah became increasingly dictatorial. The opposition was severely limited in its freedom of action, leaders of the United party were imprisoned without trial, and defamation of Nkrumah was made a crime. The government decreed a state of emergency in 1961 and again in 1962. In late 1963 Nkrumah began to limit the freedom of the judiciary. A one-party system was introduced in 1964. C
Political Instability Acheampong suspended the constitution, banned political activity, and curbed freedom of the press and union activities. Military control was relaxed slightly in 1974, and a civilian political affairs advisory council and an economic planning council were set up. Acheampong, however, was forced to resign in 1978, giving way to General Frederick W. Akuffo, who ruled for less than a year before he was overthrown by Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings. Dedicated to uprooting corruption, Rawlings had both Acheampong and Akuffo executed for that offense. In September 1979 Rawlings stepped down in favor of an elected civilian president, Hilla Limann.
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