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I
INTRODUCTION II
LAND AND RESOURCES A Rivers and Lakes The major rivers of Madagascar are the Betsiboka, Tsiribihina, Mangoky, and Onilahy; all rise in the uplands near the eastern coast and flow west to the Mozambique Channel through fertile valleys. By contrast, rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean are short and swift, frequently plunging from the uplands in waterfalls. The largest lake is Alaotra, near Toamasina. B Climate The eastern part of Madagascar receives much rain, brought onshore by southeastern trade winds, which are forced to rise and drop moisture as they meet the eastern escarpment; annual precipitation in some places exceeds 3,050 mm (120 in). The central plateau gets considerably less moisture, and arid areas in the south and southwest receive less than 380 mm (less than 15 in) of precipitation per year. Most of the rain falls from November to April. The coastal regions generally are hot throughout the year. The central plateau has a temperate climate, with warm summers and cool winters. The average temperature range in Antananarivo on the plateau is 16° to 26° C (61° to 79° F) in January and 9° to 20° C (48° to 68° F) in July. C Vegetation and Animal Life Tropical rain forests containing valuable hardwoods are common in eastern Madagascar. Savanna woodland and grasslands predominate in the drier western regions, and desert vegetation occurs in the extreme southwest. Animal life is unusual. Lemurs, a primitive family of primate, are found chiefly in Madagascar. Although native species exhibit characteristics of both African and Indian animal life, their differences indicate they evolved on Madagascar during a long period of isolation. D Mineral Resources Madagascar is believed to have abundant mineral reserves, although many have yet to be exploited. Chromite is the most valuable mineral being mined; it and graphite, mica, and semiprecious stones are the country’s principal mineral exports. Plans to extract bauxite, ilmenite (a titanium ore), and coal are being developed. Deposits of petroleum and natural gas were discovered offshore in 1980. III
POPULATION
A
Language and Religion B Education Education is compulsory for five years in Madagascar. In 1995 the adult literacy rate had reached 80.2 percent, one of the highest rates in Africa. An estimated 73 percent of elementary school-aged children were enrolled in school in 1996, and 13 percent of those between the ages of 12 and 17 were enrolled in secondary school. The University of Antananarivo (1961) is the country’s principal institution of higher education. C
Cultural Institutions IV
ECONOMY A Agriculture Because of the mountainous terrain, only 4 percent of Madagascar is farmed. The chief food crop is rice, which is grown on about one-half of the agricultural land. Since the early 1970s imports of this staple food have been necessary to meet needs, and the primary objective of agricultural policy in the 1980s was to increase rice production. An end to sale and transportation controls, coupled with higher yields, had diminished the need for rice imports in the 1990s. Other important food crops are cassava, sweet potatoes, potatoes, maize, beans, bananas, and peanuts. Leading cash crops, which supply most of Madagascar’s export revenue, are vanilla, coffee, cloves, and sugarcane. Coffee once was the primary crop, but production declined as commodity prices dropped sharply. Other important crops are cotton, sisal, and tropical fruits. Livestock in Madagascar included 10.3 million cattle, 1.7 million pigs, and 1.3 million goats in 1998. B Forestry and Fishing In 1997 some 11.2 million cu m (395 million cu ft) of timber was cut, most of it for local use as fuel. Efforts are underway to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas. The fishing industry is expanding, and shrimps and lobsters have become a significant source of export revenue. The fish catch in 1996 was 119,352 metric tons, about one-third of which was taken from inland waters. Madagascar allows other countries to fish in its exclusive maritime zone in exchange for compensation. C Mining and Manufacturing Mineral products of Madagascar include chromite, mica, graphite, and salt. Offshore petroleum deposits, discovered in 1980, have not yet been commercially exploited. Plans have been initiated to extract bauxite and ilmenite, a titanium-bearing ore. Food processing (meat packing, brewing, and sugar refining) is the leading manufacturing industry. Petroleum refining and motor-vehicle assembly are of growing importance, and some production of textiles, electronic equipment, glass, printed materials, and tobacco items takes place. D Energy In 1997 Madagascar produced 745 million kilowatt-hours of electricity. Some 67 percent of all electricity is produced in hydroelectric facilities. E Foreign Trade Madagascar usually has a negative trade balance. In 1996 imports were valued at $507 million and exports at $299 million. Food such as vanilla, shrimp, lobster, coffee, and cloves accounted for 69 percent of export revenue in 1995. Other important exports were cotton fabrics, refined petroleum, sugar, and chromium. Leading imports were chemical products, crude petroleum, machinery, vehicles and vehicle parts, and electrical equipment. France is by far the leading trading partner, accounting for nearly 30 percent of Madagascar’s trading activity. Other significant purchasers of the country’s exports are the United States, Germany, Japan, and Italy; chief sources of imports in addition to France are Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the United States. F Currency and Banking The Malagasy franc, divided into 100 centimes, is the currency unit (5,091 Malagasy francs equal U.S.$1; 1997 average). The Central Bank of Madagascar (founded 1973) is the bank of issue. All banks were nationalized in 1975 but reopened to private and foreign investment beginning in the late 1980s. G Transportation Antananarivo is the main hub of Madagascar’s limited transportation system. In the early 1990s the country was served by about 1,020 km (about 630 mi) of operated railroad track and by 49,837 km (30,967 mi) of roads. The country has 4.5 passenger vehicles for every 1,000 residents. Toamasina, the chief port, handles 70 percent of the nation’s foreign trade. Other port cities are Mahajanga, Toliara, and Antsiraana. Madagascar has four major airports, including the international airport at Antananarivo. Air Madagascar is the national airline. H Communications Until 1990 the state owned all broadcasting operations in Madagascar. That year the state monopoly was abolished by legislation that opened the industry to private stations working in partnership with the government. State restrictions on publishing were also lifted in the early 1990s. Among the 5 daily newspapers published in 1996 were Midi-Madagascar, Nouveau Journal de Madagascar, Madagascar Tribune, and Imongo Vaovao, all published in Antananarivo. V
GOVERNMENT The judicial system is modeled on that of France. It includes a Supreme Court, in Antananarivo; a Court of Appeal; 11 courts of first instance; and special economic and criminal tribunals. Until 1993 the structure of local government included six provinces, which were divided into prefectures, subprefectures, and cantons. In 1995 it was determined that once local elections take place, these provinces will be divided into 28 regions; the regions will contain departments and, within the departments, communes. The National Front for the Defense of the Madagascar Socialist Revolution was Madagascar’s only permitted political party from 1975 to 1990. Legislation approved that year allowed the resumption of multiparty political activity, resulting in the formation of more than 120 parties. Leading organizations in the early 1990s were the Committee of Living Forces, the governing coalition composed of an alliance of political parties, trade unions, and religious groups: the Militant Party for the Development of Madagascar, a coalition of parties supporting the former president; the Confederation of Civil Societies for Development; the Association of United Malagasys; and the Rally for Social Democracy. Madagascar has a 21,000-member military, with 20,000 of those personnel in the army. A 7,500-member gendarmerie performs paramilitary functions. Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organization of African Unity, and several other international organizations. It is a signatory of the second Lomé Convention (1979), an agreement on cooperation between what is now the European Union and about 60 developing countries. VI
HISTORY A French Encroachment The French gained a temporary foothold on the island in 1642 but were driven out in 1674. They finally acquired a few trading bases along the east coast in the following century. Their sphere of influence was restricted, however, as a result of the rise of a powerful monarchy among the Merina, a people of Malay origin in the central plateau. From 1810 to 1828, during the reign of the Merina king Radama I, who was hostile to the French, the British gained influence. British officers trained Merina troops, and British missionaries introduced schools and Christianity. Following the death of Radama, a strong reaction against European culture developed. Reforms were abolished, the missionaries were persecuted, and trade relations with Britain were severed. On the accession of Radama II (in 1861), a generally progressive ruler, some of the early reforms were reinstituted. Radama II, who was friendly to the French, was subsequently murdered by the conservative faction at the Merina court. A protracted period of strained relations and recurrent hostilities with the French culminated in 1895 in submission by the reigning monarch, Queen Ranavalona III. In 1896, as a result of popular uprisings, Madagascar was proclaimed a colony of France; military rule was instituted, and the queen was exiled. Various reforms and improvements were introduced in Madagascar during the following decades, but discontent with French rule gradually assumed serious proportions. In 1916 a secret nationalist society was outlawed, and hundreds of its members were jailed. In May 1942, two years after the fall of France in World War II, the British government, fearful that the Japanese would seize Madagascar, dispatched an expeditionary force to the island. In 1943 the British surrendered control to the Free French government. The postwar period was marked by a resumption of nationalist agitation. B Movement Toward Independence Under the provisions of the French constitution of 1946, Madagascar and some dependencies became an overseas territory of France. The constitution established elective Madagascan provincial assemblies with limited powers. In March 1947, nationalists in east Madagascar began an armed revolt against the French that was not suppressed until August. After the revolt the government emphasized efforts to improve the economy by extending the road system and by exploiting coal deposits more systematically. During the 1950s France took measures to increase self-government on the island. Elections held in 1951, 1952, and 1957 generally favored those who advocated gradual attainment of independence. The constitution of the Fifth Republic of France was approved by 78 percent of the Madagascan electorate in a referendum held on September 28, 1958. A subsequent congress of the members of the provincial councils proclaimed Madagascar, renamed the Malagasy Republic, a semiautonomous member of the French Community. Philibert Tsiranana, leader of the Social Democratic Party, was inaugurated as president and head of state on November 1. On June 26, 1960, the republic became fully autonomous while retaining a cordial association with France. In September it was admitted to the United Nations. C
Military Rule Economic pressures in the late 1970s added to political unrest, to which the government responded with a series of alerts and arrests; alleged antigovernment plots were reported in 1977, 1980, and 1982. Reelected in November 1982 and March 1989, Ratsiraka suppressed another coup attempt in May 1990. After massive antigovernment demonstrations, he promised in August 1991 to institute democratic reforms; a transitional government took office in November, and a new constitution was approved by popular referendum in August 1992. Albert Zafy defeated Ratsiraka in a presidential runoff election in February 1993.
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